CONTENTS OF Vol. 32, No. 1, 2007

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SPECIAL NUMBER ON MUHAMMAD ‘ABDUH

YASIR S. IBRAHIM: “Muhammad ‘Abduh and Maqasid Al-Shari’a”

ABSTRACT: The paper presents an analysis of the legal thought of the Egyptian religious reformer Muhammad ‘Abduh (died 1905), particularly his usage of a concept in Sunni Islamic legal theory known in Arabic as maqasid al-shari’a. ‘Abduh and some of his students, such as Muhammad Rashid Rida (died 1935), consider this term to mean the “true” aims or spirit of Islamic law in contrast to a pre-modern tradition of strict “literal” interpretation. ‘Abduh can be regarded as the founder of this movement of religious and legal reform which continued throughout the twentieth century. By focusing on the maqasid, the reformist ‘ulama’ (religious scholars) hope to bring about broader social and legal reforms in the Islamic world. I focus in my paper on the development of the maqasid movement through its first modern conceptualization by ‘Abduh. Since this mode of religious and legal reform has largely been ignored or dismissed by existing scholarship in the West, my methodology will consist in presenting ‘Abduh’s maqasid thought in the light of Western scholars’ assessment of his movement of religious reform. In the paper I mostly refer to Malcolm Kerr, Albert Hourani, and Wael Hallaq’s assessments about ‘Abduh and Rida’s projects of legal reform. Hourani and Hallaq’s conclusions are very much based on Kerr’s assessments, which describe ‘Abduh and Rida’s legal thought as very much emanating from Western conceptions of Natural Law and Utilitarianism. Thus, according to Kerr, Hourani, and Hallaq, this movement of religious reform will ultimately lead to “secular” conceptions of Islamic law that contradict traditional “religious” understanding of the law based on the sacred texts of Islam. The paper’s central thesis represents a response to the aforenentioned scholars in which I argue first that ‘Abduh’s conception of natural law is very much limited and defined by the Divine law, i.e. The shari’a. In addition, I argue that ‘Abduh’s legal thought is not fully utilitarianist and that the best way to understand ‘Abduh’s legal reform is through his conception of maqasid al-shari’a, particularly the legal aims mentioned in the Qur’an. Here, I offer an analysis of ‘Abduh’s legal theory and several of his fatwas to show how this concept is applied to actual legal situations. The studied cases include, for example, questions on political participation, art and music, wearing ornaments, and marriage and polygamy. My final conclusion is that since ‘Abduh’s legal thought is based on Islamic sacred texts, without ignoring an influence coming from Western sources, one should evaluate such reformist ideas as a religiously legitimate contribution toward a modernist interpretation of Islamic law.

MAHCER LOTFI: “Muhammad Abduh l’esprit et la lettre”

RÉSUMÉ: La vie et la carrière de Muhammad Abduh couvrent presque la première période égyptienne du XIXème siècle et le début du XXème siècle, celle des vice-rois réformateur et des Khédives. Nous allons voir que Muhammad Abduh fut par son activité et sa doctrine un représentant tout à fait éminent de cette période. C’est sur une étude de l’ensemble de son activité et de ses œuvres écrites, acceptés telles quelles sont, dans l’étonnante diversité de leurs titres et de leur contenu, que nous voudrions fonder une nouvelle approche des attitudes et des idées de Abduh; tout en disant notre conviction, qu’il restera encore beaucoup à faire après cette étude, dans la même orientation, pour comprendre véritablement Abduh, dont le destin fut de tenter une très difficile conciliation.
    Cette étude résulte en effet d’une lecture des écrits de Abduh, et de sa biographie, que nous avons voulue aussi immergée que possible dans la culture de son temps. Nous avons également cherché à éviter la tentation de réduire trop vite ce qui apparaît au lecteur actuel comme des contradictions, car nous croyons que c’est à la condition de prendre en compte ces points difficiles qu’on a quelque chance de construire une conceptualisation de la pensée politique dans l’Egypte des Khédives. Cependant l’oeuvre de Abduh est très riche. Elle n’a pas fini de susciter recherches, travaux et réflexions, desquels on peut penser que surgiront de nouvelles lectures.
    Muhammad Abduh fut avant tout un réformateur pratique, un éducateur remarquable et un lutteur persévérant pour changer la communauté musulmane en profondeur afin de la rendre capable de retrouver sa dignité. Bien qu’ayant acquis une formation traditionnelle profonde et ayant eu à traiter nombre de questions doctrinales, son souci fondamentale fut toujours pratique et tous ses exposés doctrinaux son fonction de ce soucis réformiste concret. Pour nous, si Muhammad Abduh a marqué profondément l’époque moderne en Egypte et au delà de l’Egypte, sa principale grandeur réside dans les qualités exceptionnelles de sa personne: droiture, franchise, courage, justice, souci efficace des pauvres et malchanceux, générosité, bonté, piété toute intérieure et allergique à l’ostentation, Il était à la fois éducateur, écrivain, orateur, journaliste, mais avant tout un politicien. Bref un véritable humanisme porté par une foi sincère et profonde.
    L’intérêt pour la recherche que représentent les écrits de Muhammad Abduh est multiple. A sa situation personnelle particulière sur laquelle nous reviendrons, il faut ajouter que l’époque pendant laquelle il vécut est particulièrement importante dans l‘histoire contemporaine : il s’agit de la charnière entre le XIXe et le XXe siècle. Sa vie s’étend de 1849 à 1905 : il est né par, conséquent, à l’époque de l’apogée de la colonisation : Les arabes qui avaient vécu un engourdissement politique et culturel total sous la domination turque vont être réveillés au XIXe siècle par le dur contact avec les Européens. La supériorité technique, matérielle et intellectuelle de ceux-ci les conduit à une prise de conscience. L’Orient Arabe est marqué par la Nahda (Réveil) et le mouvement réformiste. Ce mouvement de renaissance du monde musulman se développe, au moment où l’impérialisme européen s’étend de plus en plus. Ce réveil débouche sur des mouvements nationalistes qui revendiquent et arrachent l’indépendance. Cette résurrection du monde musulman se poursuit encore aujourd’hui.
    L’ambition de cette étude, outre son objectif biographique, est de rendre compte des idées et de l’engagement de Muhammad Abduh à la lumière de la tradition réformiste. La pensée de Muhammad Abduh est très mal connue en Occident, même si son nom est souvent convoqué. C’est d’ailleurs l’un des objectifs de cette étude que de présenter la contribution de ce rformiste dont l’influence est aujourd’hui mondialement reconnue mais qui reste malgré tout largement ignorée des milieux académiques. Pour ce faire, nous nous trouvons dans l’obligation de remonter quelque peu le cours de l’histoire dans le but d’analyser et de présenter la pensée réformiste de l’époque contemporaine. Auparavant, une présentation de la situation du monde musulman et des événements marquants de la fin du XIXe siècle s’impose si l’on veut appréhender et comprendre comme il se doit la véritable nature de la tradition réformiste.

OLIVIER CARRE: “Lectures du Coran: Qutb contre Abduh”

RÉSUMÉ: Quelle méthode de lecture du Coran chez l’un, dans Fî zilâl al-qur’ân, et chez l’autre, notamment dans ses contributions à Tafsîr al-manâr? Quelle interprétation de la foi en elle-même et des croyances, notamment la création divine et la liberté humaine, l’Autre Monde et la Vie future? Quelle interpretation de l’incroyance et de l’apostasie, du christianisme et du judaisme? Quelle pensée politique et quelle idée de la pratique du pouvoir musulman idéal, en particulier de la shûrâ? Quelle conception de la Sharî’a et des Lois de l’Etat islamique à venir, notamment concernant l’apostasie et le droit de la famille? Quelle justice sociale, quelle interprétation de la Zakat et de l’interdiction de l’intérêt spéculatif (ribâ)? Quelle interprétation de la guerre-pour-Dieu? Les réponses à ces questions conduisent à contester l’extrémisme de Qutb, mais aussi le timide réformisme de Abduh face au défi de l’herméneutique scientifique des Ecritures.

RONALD L. NETTLER: “Ideas and methods in new Islamic thought in late-colonial Egypt: A plea for the re-institution of Ijtihad”

ABSTRACT: The period from 1919 to the early 1950’s in Egypt saw the emergence of a Plethora of new-intellectual and cultural trends. In the context of late-colonial Egyptian political, economic and social developments, these trends took root and flourished. Among them were Islamic outlooks and ideas which represented a break with the methods, style, contents and emphases of pre-modern Islamic thought. This new thought was the product of intellectuals who were often not ‘ulama’ and those who wrote in the new way. Though these writings often took the form of books, a large amount of them appeared in the many new intellectual journals in Egypt which were themselves part of the new intellectual and cultural life of the period. This journal literature of Islamic thought constitutes an important source for the intellectual history of Islam in the Middle East in the 20th century. In the main, it still awaits detailed analysis of its ideas and intellectual methods.
    The present article is an analysis of one piece of this literature: an article titled “In the Sphere of Ijtihad”, by Professor ‘abd al-Muta’ali al-Sa’idi, which appeared in the journal al-Risala in 1936. Al-Sa’idi here gives his own account of ijtihad in history and calls for its reinstitution in the present. Central are his ideas of history, religion, thought and Islam’s contemporary problems and their solution.
    The influence of Muhammad ‘Abduh is clearly seen here. The present article is part of a larger project which will treat a number of pieces from this journal literature in a similar analysis.

ITZCHAK WEISMANN: “The Sociology of Islamic Modernism: Muhammad ‘Abduh, the Muslim Public Sphere, and the Colonial State.”

ABSTRACT: This article examines the biography and ideas of Muhammad ‘Abduh, the seminal figure of Islamic Modernism in the Arab world, from a sociological perspective. More particularly it makes use of Habermas’ concept of the public sphere, and the critics thereof, to examine the two major turning points in ‘Abduh’s career. One was his move from al-Azhar scholasticism to journalism during the 1870s, the other being his return from exile in the late 1880s to take office under the British occupation. Scholars have tended to follow Rashid Rida’s quasi-official biography of ‘Abduh and explain these changes in personal terms: the charisma of a Jamal al-Din Afghani or the force of a Lord Cromer. I would rather argue that ‘Abduh’s Modernist outlook was characteristic of a new stratum of religious intellectuals which was integrated into the incipient Egyptian public sphere in Khedive Isma‘il’s time. ‘Abduh’s subsequent readiness to cooperate with the British derived from the adverse experiences he had with the autocratic governments of Khedive Tawfiq during the ‘Urabi revolt and of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abdulhamid II while he was in exile in Beirut. As both regimes strangled the public spheres of their respective societies, ‘Abduh became convinced that the cause of Islamic reform would be better served under the more liberal British colonial state.

KATHARINA IVANYI: “God’s custom Concerning the Rise and Fall of Nations: the Tafsîr al-manâr on Q 8:53 and Q 13:11”

ABSTRACT: This article will examine Muhammad ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida’s interpretation of Q 8:53 and Q 13:11, as found in their seminal Qur’n commentary, the Tafsîr al-manâr. Their reading and treatment of these two verses will be argued to represent a highly innovative adaptation and incorporation of certain strands of nineteenth-century European thought into the field of Qur’nic exegesis. It provides a good example of how the two reformers addressed a number of issues of modernity, in particular the perceived ‘decline’ and ‘impotence’ of Islam vis-à-vis the West. Their adoption of certain positivist, social-Darwinist and other notions of contemporary European thought, as well as their incorporation of these into the interpretation of two seemingly innocuous Qur’nic verses, is representative of a more general trend affecting the transformation of Islamic religious thought at the time — a transformation, which, hence, also involved a redefinition and semantic broadening of traditional Islamic concepts in the light of new and ‘modern’ notions taken up from the West.

THESES ABSTRACTS ON MUHAMMAD ‘ABDUH

MAHCER LOTFI: “Les idées de Muhamed”, thèse de Doctorat, Université de Paris X, soutenu le 9 Septembre 2005

RÉSUMÉ: Le sujet porte sur la personnalité de Muhamed ‘Abduh (1849-1905), un pionnier incontesté de la pensée musulmane contemporaine, et plus particulièrement sur le réformisme musulman de cet homme qui fut l’un des symboles de la modernisation au dix neuvième siècle. Cette étude sur ‘Abduh est aussi une étude de la pensée réformiste. Il s’agit de la période durant laquelle l’Egypte ainsi que d’autres pays de l’orient arabe, ont assistées à la monte des mouvements nationaux contre la domination ottomane. Ces mouvements étaient l’expression politique directe des idées de l’époque de la Nahda et la renaissance. ‘Abduh fut un acteur atypique de cette période. Ses idées et ses projets, sa contribution au développement de la pensée musulmane, sa vision renouvelée des structures politiques et sociales. Ainsi comprendre les origines et la nature des mouvements réformistes et le modernisme musulman dans les pays du moyen orient. La personnalité de ‘Abduh et ses idées peuvent servir de référence et de source de réforme dans le contexte de l’islam aujourd’hui.

YASIR S. IBRAHIM: “The spirit of Islamic law and modern religious reform: Maqasid al-shari‘a in Muhammad ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida’s legal thought”, Princeton University, PhD 2004.

ABSTRACT : This dissertation presents an analysis of the legal thinking of two modern Muslim religious reformers, particularly their usage of a concept in Sunni; Islamic legal theory known in Arabic as Maqasid al-shari‘a. The religious reformers who are the subjects of this dissertation, the Egyptian Muhammad ‘Abduh (died 1905) and his Syrian student Muhammad Rashid Rida (died 1935), consider this term to mean the ‘true’ aims or spirit of Islamic law in contrast to a tradition of strict literal interpretation. ‘Abduh can be regarded as the founder of this movement of religious and legal reform which continued throughout the 20th century. By focusing on the Maqasid, the reformist ‘Ulama’ (religious scholars) hope to bring about broader social and legal reforms in the Islamic world. I focus on the development of the Maqasid movement through its first modern conceptualization by ‘Abduh. Since this mode of religious and legal reform has largely been ignored or dismissed by existing scholarship, my methodology will consist in presenting the reformers’ thought in light of the critique they faced. This critique comes from certain traditionalist religious scholars, especially neo-hanbalıtes associated with the Wahhabi movement in Saudi Arabia and certain scholars affiliated with the famous al-Azhar University in which ‘Abduh studied and attempted to reform. However, certain scholars of Islam in the West who studied ‘Abduh and Rida’s reform movement also offer a critique of their legal thought. In the dissertation I mostly refer to Malcolm Kerr, Albert Hourani, and Wael Hallaq’s assessments of ‘Abduh and Rida’s projects of legal reform. After an introduction that aims to define maqasid, al-shari‘a and the role this concept plays in classical and modern Islamic legal theorization, chapter one addresses the connection between ‘natural law’ and ‘divine law’ in ‘Abduh’s legal thought and considers Kerr’s claim that ‘Abduh’s theological views, which are different from the Ash’arite Sunni ones, influenced his legal thought. Chapter two focuses on the maqasid thought of ‘Abduh through the analysis of his theoretical writings and some of his fatwa (religious edicts). Chapter three examines the religious and legal reform espoused by ‘Abduh’s disciple Rashid Rida and analyzes his maqasid thought.

GESINK, INDIRA FALK: “Beyond modernisms: Opposition and negotiation in the Azhar reform debate in Egypt, 1870 - 1911”, Washington University, PhD, 2000

ABSTRACT : This dissertation examines debates over curricular and administrative reforms at the Azhar Mosque in nineteenth-century Cairo, one of the most influential centres of religious study in the Islamic world. These debates catalyzed a fundamental shift in the way varieties of knowledge and ‘ways of knowing’ were hierarchically organized and absorbed by the Muslim public, which catalyzed public acceptance of several trends in twentieh-century Islamic thought, including secularism, Islamic modernism, and radical Islamism. The dissertation begins with historiographical point that sets me outside the self-confirming layers of authoritative scholarship: Historians of Egypt have assumed that famous ‘modernist’ reformers such as Muhammad ‘Abduh were primarily responsible for the instigation of the reform movement and for the conceptualization of modern religious life that emanated from Azhar and permeated Egyptian and Islamic society, and that opposition to reform arose from a faction of religious conservatives mired in scholastic ‘traditionalism’. Employing concepts of ‘tradition’ and sociocultural change derived from cognitive philosophy, I sought out obscure sources on ‘opposition to reforms’. These revealed that ‘opponents of reforms’, engaged many of the same issues as reformers, that both parties sought epistemological and juridical mechanisms to adapt to the contemporary strain of change in ways that preserved the moral purity of the Muslim community and ensured its continued guidance by the ‘Ulama; (they even had fluid memberships) and that some so-called opponents formulated alternative visions of reform that eschewed the modernists’ social-scientific terminologies of progress in favour of an ‘adaptive preservationism’. In fact, the texts of reforms show greater attention to the concerns of the conservatives than to the original programmes of Muhammad ‘Abduh, and legal conservatives chaired the very committees that generated and implemented reforms. Had religious conservatives not contributed to the reforms of the early twentieth century, the reforms would have lacked the crucial ‘cultural assonance’, that permitted them to become rooted in public life. In short, my dissertation is a critical revision of our knowledge of Islamic reform

MUKBIL, F.T.M: “The Development of reform concepts in nineteenth century Egypt, with special emphasis on Shaykh Muhammad ‘Abduh and his group”, PhD University of Manchester 1983

ABSTRACT: The nineteenth century saw the convergence (and conflict) of many traditions and cultures. This was most evident in Arab and Islamic countries emerging from centuries of lethargy and enforced isolation. The dangers as well as promises of a new age dawned on many intellectuals and leaders’ of various local communities, challenging them to advance new ideas or reinterpret traditional ideas in a new light. The reform attempts, which were increasingly being regarded as a matter of necessity and urgency rather than of desire, were dealing with such varied issues as religion, education, system of government, and literary expression. Indeed, the age was ripe for these movements, which included large-scale military and social upheavals, starting, most vividly, with Wahhabism in Arabia and continuing with the Sanusiyya in North Africa and Mahdism in Sudan, as well as with many other movements throughout the Arab and Islamic world.
    The landing of Napoleon’s troops at Alexandria in July 1798 marked the beginning of a history not only of confrontation but also of cultural relations between East ans West.
    The emergence of Muhammad ‘Ali as supreme ruler of Egypt between 1805-1849 and his interest in modernizing his army and building a strong and new Egypt led to extensive contacts with Europe, the establishment of several important industries, the influx of foreign advisers and the sending of Egyptians to Europe for study and training. Among the pioneer intellectuals who benefited from and represented this new development was Rifi‘a Rafi‘ al Tahtawi (1801-1873) who translated various European works and proposed significant reforms in the fields of education, which, he emphasized, had to include women. In this atmosphere, the nascent press and journalism took root and were sometimes encouraged by successive Khedives.
    Shaykh Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905) must be considered as a product of and an heir to previous developments. As such he profited from what came before him, but also introduced several new concepts which he was at pains to see applied. ‘Abduh’s own life reflected his strong determination and moral courage. He rose from a humble, though proud, peasant family and went beyond the confinement of his village surroundings to receive education at al-Ahmadi Mosque and, subsequently al-Azhar University.
    His often rebellious and innovative nature came to the fore even during his studies at al-Azhar, where he met with stiff opposition but also sometimes with admiration and acclaim. Later, as a teacher at al-Azhar, ‘Abduh inspired many students who began to spread his teachings elsewhere.
    In the meantime, ‘Abduh had met (in 1871) the great Islamic reformer and revolutionary Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839-1897) who arrived in Egypt as an exile from his native land and political agitator who was admired in Muslim countries. Initially, ‘Abduh saw in al-Afghani a guide and a mentor but learned, through increased experience and travel, to develop his own ideas, sometimes incorporating but always going beyond those of al-Afghani.
    ‘Abduh’s participation in the movement led by Ahmad ‘Urabi (1840-1911) resulted in his exile from Egypt which lasted from 1882 to 1888 and during which he visited and lived in Beirut, Paris, London and North Africa, always speaking on behalf of the nationalist cause and the cause of Muslim unity and regeneration.
After his return to Egypt, ‘Abduh rose to the pinnacle of religious position by becoming Grand Mufti of Egypt in 1899. This gave him the opportunity to see many of his reform ideas through to application under semi-official patronage.
    The originality of ‘Abduh’s thinking and the richness of his legacy are evident, in his special complex attitude to the Ottoman caliphate, the education of women, his involvement in various activities and societies, his contribution to journalism and the revival of Arabic Language and Literature, the attempted reconcilliation with other monotheistic religions, besides the great number of disciples who carried and translated his thoughts and helped influence various movements, some of which remain active to this day in many parts of the Arab and Islamic worlds.

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